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بازرگانی (Trading)

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 TRADING                                                                                

 

What is a TRADE

Trade is a basic economic concept involving the buying and
selling of goods and services, with compensation paid by a buyer to a seller,
or the exchange of goods or services between parties. The most common
medium of exchange for these transactions is money, but trade may also be executed
with the exchange of goods or services between both parties, referred to as a
barter, or payment with virtual currency, the most popular of which is bitcoin.

Trade involves the transfer of goods or services from one person or entity to another, often in exchange for money.
A network that allows trade is called a
market.

The original form of trade, barter, saw the direct exchange
of goods and services for other goods and services. Barter is trading things
without the use of money. Later one side of the barter started to involve
precious metals, which gained symbolic as well as practical importance. Modern traders
generally negotiate through a medium of exchange, such as money. As a result,
buying can be separated from selling, or
earning. The invention of
money
(and later credit, paper money
and
non-physical
money
) greatly simplified and promoted trade. Trade between two
traders is called bilateral trade, while trade between more than two traders is
called multilateral trade.

Trade exists due to the specialization and division of labor, in
which most people concentrate on a small aspect of production, but use that
output in trades for other products and needs. Trade exists between regions because
different regions may have a
comparative
advantage
(perceived or real) in the production of some trade-able commodity—including production of
natural resources scarce or limited elsewhere, or because different regions’
size may encourage
mass production.
As such, trade at
market prices
between locations can benefit both locations.

Retail
trade consists of the
sale
of goods or merchandise from a very fixed location, such as a
department store, boutique or kiosk, online or by mail, in small or individual
lots for direct
consumption or use by the purchaser. Wholesale trade is defined as the
sale of goods that are sold as
merchandise
to
retailers,
or industrial, commercial, institutional, or other professional
business users, or to other
wholesalers and related subordinated services.



Prehistory

Trade originated with human
communication
in prehistoric
times. Trading was the main facility of prehistoric people, who bartered goods
and services from each other before the innovation of modern-day currency.
Peter
Watson
dates the history
of long-distance commerce
from circa 150,000 years ago.

In the Mediterranean region the earliest contact between cultures
were of members of the species Homo sapiens principally using the Danube river,
at a time beginning 35,000–30,000
BCE.

Some trace the origins of commerce to the very start of transaction in prehistoric
times. Apart from traditional
self-sufficiency,
trading became a principal
facility of prehistoric people, who bartered what they had for goods
and services from each other.

Historian Peter
Watson
and Ramesh Manickam dates the history
of long-distance commerce
from circa 150,000 years ago.

.

 

Currency
as a Medium of Exchange

Money, which also functions as a unit of account and a store of
value, is the most common medium of exchange, providing a variety of methods
for fund transfers between buyers and sellers, including cash, ACH transfers,
credit cards and wired funds. Money’s attribute as a store of value also
provides assurance that funds received by sellers as payment for goods or
services can be used to make purchases of equivalent value in the future.

 

Virtual Currencies

As the newest medium of exchange, virtual currencies do not
expose holders to foreign exchange risks, provide anonymity between trading
partners if desired and avoid the often-significant processing fee for credit
cards. The most popular virtual currency is bitcoin, which was introduced in
2009. Bitcoins are held in virtual wallets and can be used with a growing
number of merchants, including WordPress.com and Overstock.com. The virtual
currency is also popular with small businesses, due in part to the lack of
processing fees.
 

 

  

                                                                                بازرگانی  

 

  تاریخچه

بازرگانی (به انگلیسی: TRADE)
سامانه یا محیطی است که بر چشم‌انداز کسب‌وکار یک اقتصاد
یا ملت‌دولت تاثیر می‌گذارد. در حالی که
کسب‌وکار (سوداگری) به
فعالیت‌های ارزش‌آفرین یک سازمان بمنظور
سود اشاره دارد، بازرگانی به معنای کل
سامانه اقتصاد است که محیطی برای
تجارت تشکیل می‌دهد.
این سامانه شامل سامانه‌های قانونی، اقتصادی،
سیاسی، اجتماعی، فرهنگی، و فناورانه است که در حال
عملیات در هر کشوری هستند. همچنین می‌توان از آن تحت
عنوان دومین جزء کسب‌وکار یاد کرد که شامل همه فعالیت‌ها،
عملکردها و مؤسسات درگیر در انتقال کالا از تولیدکننده به مصرف‌کننده
می‌باشد.

 

مدیریت بازرگانی

مدیریت بازرگانی که
سرآغاز آن کشور
فرانسه می‌باشد، از
دانشگاه
ESCP Europe
شروع شده است و به بحث درمورد پیرامون چگونگی کنترل سود،
سرمایه، هزینه و استفاده
ٔ بهینه از
امکانات موجود می‌پردازد. می‌توان گفت که هدف از این رشته
آشنایی دقیق با وظایف اساسی سازمان‌های
بازرگانی، افزایش مهارت و توانایی دانشجویان در
شناخت مسائل مبتنی بر مدیریت، جمع‌آوری و تجزیه و
تحلیل اطلاعات مرتبط به هر یک از این مسائل،
ارزیابی راه‌حل‌های مختلف در مورد هر مسئله، تصمیم‌گیری
و اجرای تصمیمات می‌باشد.
تیلور پایه‌گذار
این علم در
مکتب کلاسیک بوده است. از استادان مدیریت در
ایران می‌توان اشخاصی همچون:
دکتر مهدی الوانی، دکتر
علی رضاییان
، دکتر
علی‌اکبر فرهنگی
و دکتر سید رضا سید جوادین را نام برد. از
دیگر بحث‌های مدیریت بازرگانی
بازاریابی می‌باشد که در
سال‌های اخیر به جایگاه باارزشی دست یافته است و به
عنوان یک علم شناخته می‌شود. شرکت‌های بزرگ همواره درسال‌های
اخیر هزینه‌های سنگینی را برای این
مقوله در نظر گرفته و بازخورد مناسبی از آن دریافت نموده‌اند.
بازاریابی خود به شاخه‌های متعددی تقسیم
گردیده و دانشگاه‌ها سعی در پرورش متخصصین در شاخه‌های
مختلف این علم نموده‌اند. بازاریابی را می‌توان به شاخه‌های
متعددی تقسیم کرد که مهم‌ترین آن‌ها بازاریابی
داخلی و
بازاریابی بین‌المللی هستند.

 

 

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